Cook, Jack. “Ethics of Data Mining.” Rochester Institute of Technology, R.I.T. Scholar Works, 2005, scholarworks.rit.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?referer=https://search.yahoo.com/&httpsredir=1&article=1443&context=article.

In this article, Jack Cook explores the ethical and legal implications of data mining. According to the author, companies can make important decisions based off of information gathered from data mining. When certain conclusions are made from this mined data, this is when ethical and moral problems can arise. One issue for people that are being mined is that laws do not frequently or directly pertain to data mining. The concept of privacy is being redefined as data mining continues to be used by public and private companies and organizations. The author identifies that law enforcement agencies and business are relying on data mining to increase their accuracy and productivity. Cook recognizes that although there are dangers with improper data mining, it can be a useful practice overall.

Martis, Michael. “Ethical Issues in the Field of Data Mining.” Professional Computing, The University of Western Australia, 30 Aug. 2013, http://teaching.csse.uwa.edu.au/units/CITS3200/essay/Michael_Martis.pdf.

Although this inquiry mainly focused on Internet data mining in America, this source serves as an interesting guide for how Australia and European countries regulate data mining. The author of this article, Michael Martis, explains that Australia has a specific code of conduct that they follow in order to ethically use data mining. He also cites a quote by the United Nations, which further explains and supports the stance that some organizations are taking on the issue of data mining (Martis 3). The author goes on to identify the key policies that numerous other Australian organizations have on data mining. In this age of controversy concerning data mining in America, knowing how other countries are handling this data issue is quite a valuable part of the conversation.

Okur, Mehmet. “On Ethical and Legal Aspects of Data Mining.” Journal of Yasar University, 2008, journal.yasar.edu.tr/wp-content/uploads/2012/05/No11_Vol3_02_m_cudi_okur.pdf.

The author of this article, Mehmet Okur, acknowledges the numerous legal and ethical factors are inherently linked with the practice of data mining. Okur points out that it is extremely difficult to institute laws that specifically limit data mining because there are no clear boundaries for this type of technology. Prevention of ethical issues, such as breaches in privacy, are also hard to carry out because the very foundation of data mining rests on the idea that personal information partially exists to be analyzed. The author identifies some methods that are presently used to protect the users being mined, but he claims that companies use simple workarounds that render these protections ineffective. This source paints an effective picture of the weaknesses and dangers that are associated with data mining.

Payne, Dinah et al. “A Composite Strategy for the Legal and Ethical Use of Data Mining.” International Journal of Management, Knowledge and Learning, 2012, http://www.issbs.si/press/ISSN/2232-5697/1_27-43.pdf.

The authors Dinah Payne and Brett Landry focus on the ways that data mining companies can limit their legal and ethical activities. The authors note that data mining is presently a great resource for organizations that seek useful information. In this article, the writers identify numerous groups that benefit from data mining. Economic patterns and information about security are pros of data mining. However, there are many problems with data mining. When companies are using private data to draw conclusions about people, incorrect assumptions can be made. It is suggested in this article that, in order to avoid legal and ethical issues, companies that use data mining should avoid using inappropriate data, clearly state that data mining is being used, and make a privacy policy. Although the authors recognize the importance and usefulness of data mining, they also identify numerous problems and subsequent solutions.

Vedder, Anton. “KDD: The Challenge to Individualism.” Ethics and Information Technology, Kluwer Academic Publishers, 2000, http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.568.4274&rep=rep1&type=pdf.

This article by Anton Vedder explains that Knowledge Discovery in Databases poses a threat to individualism. The author voices his opinion that only the data that is imperative should be collected, and that this should not be done in excessive amounts. He also explains that, without the explicit consent of the user, mined data cannot be considered legitimate. Along these lines, Vedder writes that users being mined for data should have specific rights. These rights include knowing how and why their data is being used. The author claims that individualization is threatened when data is used to build profiles. The conclusions that are made based on this data can easily be misleading and harmful. This source takes an interesting and insightful viewpoint when identifying the cons of data mining. 

 

In the United States and around the world, people who are willing to consider both sides of an issue without jumping to conclusions can be quite valuable. When it comes to the intertwining topics of data mining and public wellbeing, a consensus as to whether the practice is inappropriate or enlightened cannot be easily reached. Instead, it can be recognized that the use of data mining for safety and health purposes produces a mixture of pros and cons. Although the positives of potentially reduced crime and improvements in the treatment of patients may seem attractive, many people have raised concerns over the implications of racial profiling and inaccurate data.

Within the healthcare community, data mining has become increasingly relied upon for clinical emergency medicine. According to the National Institutes of Health, the data mining technique called clustering is used to “make predictions” and to “take proper and timely treatment decisions and reduce hospital costs” (Parva et al. 1). This may be a surprising strength for hospitals because the organization of information can be directly linked to more effective treatment. Another study by National Institutes of Health examined the role that data mining on Twitter has in tracking drug abuse patterns. Although more efficient clinical emergency medicine and an increased ability to combat drug abuse are potentially valuable, what happens when patients and the people being studied voice misgivings about their privacy and individuality being infringed upon by hospitals and medical researchers?

Similarly to the medical industry, police departments have the ability to use social media data mining to track certain groups of people. Technology they possess allows them to search through hashtags that are associated with specific crimes. Although critics have raised concerns that race, religion, and ethnicity play too large a role in the methodology of policing through data mining, the strengths of the practice cannot be ignored. The safety of whole communities is being improved because of data mining. After the September eleventh terrorist attacks, many government organizations began to use data mining to track suspicious people. Per a “2006 report to Congress,” The Department of Homeland Security has stated that they use data mining to track terrorists (Rubinstein et al. 5).

A researcher and software engineer has the viewpoint that “A trend can only reflect facts held in the current database – it cannot claim to make character judgments about an individual from the relevant interest group” (Martis 7). This is a notable idea because although he acknowledges the benefits of data mining, the author is pointing out that the conclusions that are made based on data are oftentimes inaccurate. Data mining does a fine job of compiling data and attempting to put all of the pieces of a person together, but there are always going to be parts that are missing. The fact that data mining has numerous detriments, however, does not deter the author from writing that “the power and applicability of such technologies is too great to ignore” (Martis 8). Even though this source appreciates the value of data mining while pointing out the weaknesses of the practice, it is interesting to think about how possibly misinterpreted data could be used to perpetuate stereotypes in both the law enforcement and medical communities.

The monumental issue of data mining is worthy of society’s full attention and scrutiny. The faults and strengths of data mining in regards to the health and safety of the public need to be analyzed deeply in order to establish a positive relationship. It is obvious that data mining and similar technologies will not be disappearing any time soon, and figuring out ways to safely use Internet data mining while making advances is crucial for the future success of America.

Since the founding of the United States in 1776, the people of this nation have stressed the importance of liberty. The Constitution and the Bill of Rights both identify many of the rights that people should be afforded. The founders created these documents so that the government would not be able to infringe upon citizens’ rights, unlike the monarchy in England. Approximately three hundred years later, people are facing a conundrum as yet another threat to their freedom has developed. Data mining is an inherently public practice that allows strangers to view users’ personal information, oftentimes without their knowledge. This loss of privacy and control has captured the attention of Internet users as the ramifications have become clearer.

The acronym K.D.D. is a widely used term in the technology community that stands for “knowledge discovery in databases” (Vedder 1). According to a law professor, “we may find ourselves in a situation where KDD appears to have undermined the methodic and normative individualism which pervades the mainstream of morality and moral theory” (Vedder 1). When looking at the international level, it is interesting to note that the European Directive for the Parliament and Council maintained that data should only be obtained if a specific reason warrants it and that if it is collected without consent, then it is illegitimate (Vedder 2). The idea that data mining infringes on basic rights is a concern for many Internet users. If the value of individualism is unprotected, then how should people respond to this?

A great deal of the general public in this age of frequent misinformation scandals continue to use websites that employ questionable data mining techniques. When it comes to Internet use, many people’s need to go on websites overrides their security and privacy concerns even though they are unaware of the types of data being collected and how this data is being used. Facebook is a prime example of this phenomenon. Shortly after the Cambridge Analytica hacking scandals became news, the hashtag #deletefacebook was trending on Twitter (Confessore 1). However, many people defended Facebook or were willing to overlook data breeches because it is a unique social media company that adds value to their lives. This is notable because the public quickly became divided over the use of Facebook and whether their privacy and security infringements warranted a total boycotting of the platform. The supply and demand relationship between the company and the user fosters a reliance on the company while the user is largely powerless. This is why so many individuals continue to use Facebook even though Russian and Ukrainian hackers and a data analyzation company with ties to President Trump have all used data mining through the company to track users and create patterns about people’s personal information.

When it comes to “cookies” on websites and social media platforms, most people possess a level of concern knowing that small amounts of their data are being stored by companies (unknown author 1). However, people’s need to use websites overrides their concerns and discomfort with the idea that companies are building profiles about their habits and preferences. Even as the issues surrounding data mining are brought to the attention of the public, altogether quiting the Internet hardly seems like a viable solution. According to Mehmet Okur the Journal of Yasar University, “Since privacy and even ethics are mostly personal matters, commonly applicable protective solutions are difficult to formulate” (Okur 4). As American society continues to rely on the Internet for an array of uses, it is challenging to imagine that people will stop using it. Even so, Internet data mining illicts a range of reactions from users as privacy and security concerns continue to develop.

There are a large number of benefits associated with data mining. In a world in which staring at a computer screen has become the norm, it is interesting to consider how much useful information is generated on the Internet. The data trails that users leave behind give remarkable insight into how they live and what they prioritize. Marketing and advertising companies are now able to trace users’ activities to tailor their brand to the customer. Although some may find it aggravating, the “cookies” that companies use online allow them to gather data and make predictions about users’ preferences.

The field of business is being revolutionized as companies now have astounding access to large quantities of data. The process of data mining has become incredibly streamlined, and companies even sell people’s data to other companies. Facebook has been embroiled in a data contoversy because they sell users’ data to third party companies in order to make a profit while keeping their platform free. Data mining is a necessity for Facebook because their main goal rests upon the fact that all individuals should have the ability to connect with others. If data mining did not exist, then some of the most popular companies would cease to exist in their current model.

In a journal article titled “A Composite Strategy for the Legal and Ethical Use of Data Mining,” the author writes, “… although there are many significant benefits to be derived from data mining, there are also serious drawbacks to unlimited or unregulated use of data mining” (Payne et al. 6). This quotation describes the delicate balance that companies must strike to avoid infringing on users’ rights. The backlash that Facebook is facing as the company deals with the legal and public relations ramifications from the data mining scandals is an example of data mining going too far in the eyes of the public.

The authors of the same journal article simaltaneously recognize that the positive functions of data mining boost “efficiency, security, customer-service, and product innovation” (Payne et al. 4). This quotation speaks to the nature of the market as focus shifts from traditional advertising strategies to complex measurements of buyers and their purchasing patterns. According to an article published in a University of Illinois Journal, “Data mining allows discovery of subtle relationships like a peak in sales of a product associated with a change in the profile of a particular group of customers.” (Shaw et al. 8).

For numerous businesses, Internet data mining has improved their sales and has the potential to alter the goals that they set for future growth. Companies relying on data mining to feed them information about their customers, sales trends, and their target audience for advertisements have benefited a great deal from data mining. Even so, the costs for companies are high when people find fault with their activities. As a whole, it is yet to be determined whether the economic pros of Internet data mining outweigh the controversies caused by the practice.

Data mining is defined by the National Institutes of Health as “the process of automatic discovery of novel and understandable models and patterns from large amounts of data”(Zaki et al.1). In layman’s terms, data mining can be described as the collection and subsequent analyzation of information. Data mining on the Internet is unique because numerous fields rely on this practice. Specifically, data mining is becoming increasingly popular amongst businesses as they strive to increase their profits. Advertising and marketing companies have the ability to build whole profiles based on people’s data. If people frequently buy certain products, companies may track these purchases and other information to attain a greater understanding of their customers.

The prevalence of data mining controversies in the news has sparked public conversations about whether the use of data mining is infringing on people’s rights. Arguments exist that security and privacy breaches pose a threat to the wellbeing of the general public. The people whose data is being mined have not seemed to reach a definitive conclusion about data mining. The medical community and law enforcement rely on data mining to track important patterns. From their viewpoint, data mining may be seen as a positive practice that benefits the community. Even so, it can be dangerous when organizations treat people differently based on the conclusions they make through mining.

As it does in the non-virtual world, the grouping of people can easily reveal stereotypes and further racial prejudices. When police comb through social media to uncover criminal activity, this can directly reduce the harm that others suffer at the hands of a criminal. On the other hand, police may look too closely at certain communities, which can continue a vicious cycle of discrimination. In an article published by the Rochester Institute of Technology Scholar Works, the author writes, “Data mining, being a technological artifact, is worthy of study from an ethical perspective due to its increasing importance in decision making, both in the private as well as public sectors” (Cook 4).

It has become increasingly evident that the present rise of technology is coupled with notable downsides. Some scholars and criticizers of data mining claim that the practice infringes upon users’ rights. Legally, the Supreme Court has not reached a unanimous decision as to whether or not citizens’ data should have guaranteed privacy. Many people are conveying their concerns and discomfort with the practice of data mining. One scholar has claimed that individualism, a primary value of all Americans, is being squandered by data mining.

Even though a myriad of potential problems exist, it can be difficult to ignore the positive aspect of data mining. Law enforcement officials are using data mining to identify terrorists. Medical experts are compiling data that could help people to lead healthier lives. Data mining is allowing a variety of businesses to streamline their marketing and advertising efforts to increase their profits. The contrasting viewpoints that exist about data mining call into question the extent to which the potential pros of public wellbeing and increased business profits outweigh the meaningful security and privacy concerns of the practice.